If you're looking for somewhere unique, on an island so unspoiled it has no roads but with access to lots of activities, our Lodge is for you

The origin of the name is uncertain but two legends tell stories of the islanThe first people to arrive on the island were starving boatmen who found plenty of food here, which allowed them to survive and thrive. Because of this, legend has it that they named the island “Nosy Mamiloma” - the island that helps.

Another legend explains Nosy Sakatia’s current name. The story tells of a man who lived and worked on Nosy Be. He fell in love with a woman living on our island. One day the man looked over the sea that separated the two islands and said “Sakatia”. “Sakana” means “to block” or “hinder” and “tia” is “to love” or “like”. He named the island “Nosy Sakatia” - the island that hindered his love.

Our journey here

Like so many people before and after us, we also fell in love - with the island, the people and this beautiful country.

In 2004, we decided to build the Lodge, a project that took two years.

In 2006 we welcomed our first guests, and we hope to be here so many more people can fall in love with this beautiful island too.

All our bungalows have 24h electricity and the following:

• Bath & beach towels. No need to bring your own.
• Hot Showers.
• 1 Gb free Wi-Fi per bungalow per day
• Fans to keep you cool. Available in all bungalows 24h
• 2 pin sockets in all rooms. European standard
• Mosquito nets in all bungalows. Get a peaceful night sleep

Also available

• Daily housekeeping
• Laundry service
• Safe box in the office
• Babysitting service

Choosing the perfect accommodation for your stay

We have a range of different bungalows to suit your requirements for the number of people staying and your budget. Check out the options below!

Mango Bungalow

Situated in our beautiful garden and right next to the mango trees that the lemurs like, you will be sure to get close to nature.

These comfortable bungalows have a small private veranda and are available as either a double or a twin – perfect for couples or friends.

Ravinala bungalow

These larger bungalows offer fantastic views over the property from the private veranda.

The bedroom can be set up as a twin or a double. The larger room means it is also possible to add a bed for a child up to 12 years of age, making these bungalows perfect for small families.

Madiro bungalow

This bungalow is situated in a private corner of the beach next to the Sacred Mountain. It has direct access to the beach, a private veranda, private sunbeds. It is perfect for families, with two rooms – one with a queen-size bed and one with two single beds and the option of a child bed.

3-bedroom Villa Ranomasy

Situated right on the beach, this is the perfect escape.

Relax in the shade of the large private veranda or on one of the private sunbeds with the ocean just 25 m away.

This three-bedroom villa has 3 bathrooms, 2 rooms with double bed, and 1 room with twin or double bed with the possibility to add an extra child bed.

Our Restaurant

Malagasy food is influenced by a range of different cultures – South East Asian, French, African and Italian. Our chefs produce original meals that showcase the range of food available in this beautiful country - it’s one of the things that our guests love about their stay.

Indulge in a freshly prepared breakfast, snacks at lunchtime and a three-course evening meal with complimentary rhum arrangé.

At our Lodge, you can stay on a room only, bed and breakfast or half board basis. We do not offer full board but we do have a snack menu available at lunchtime.

Flexible to meet different preferences

From vegetarian and vegan to gluten-free, our kitchen is happy to meet any dietary needs you may have.

Dinner on the beach under the stars

If you have a special occasion or want a romantic meal, let us know and we can arrange a special table for you.

Helping you to celebrate a special occasion

Birthday or anniversary? Tell us and we’ll make sure there’s a proper celebration to make the day on to remember.

Food at our Lodge

Breakfast

Served from 7 am until 9:30 am, breakfast is a buffet of cereals, yogurt, freshly-squeezed fruit juice, tea, coffee and hot chocolate. At the table, you’ll also be served bread, breakfast cake, fresh local fruit and eggs cooked to your preference. A great way to start the day.

Snack menu at lunchtime

Between 11:30 am and 2:30 pm, our bar offers a range of home-cooked foods, including croque monsieur, sandwiches, burgers, pasta and salads. Top it off with the always-popular gateau royal cake.

Dinner

Our table d’hôtes offers a three-course meal every night, which changes each day. Our menu is adapted to meet your preferences and offers a real taste of Madagascar.

Top it all off with a complimentary rhum arangé – a traditional drink made with rhum infused with different ingredients, from banana and vanilla to ginger and chocolate. A great end to the meal.

Our Bar

Our bar is open from 7 am until late and is a fantastic place for you to relax. It is right on the beach, so just a few steps onto the sand with your drink in hand. Loungers, deckchairs and sofas all offer a comfortable spot to unwind.

Watch the world go by and soak up the wonderful view in a lounger, deckchair or on a sofa.

You can often spot the resident green turtles and even see humpback whales at the right time of the year.

From tea and coffee to beer, wine, spirits and cocktails, we have the perfect selection for you. Our espresso machine, fridges and icemaker mean your drinks are just how you want them.

If you are looking for reading matter, you will find novels in many languages (English, French, German and Italian), as well as reference books to look up more about the island or the wildlife you have spotted.

Our dive centre also has a range of fish ID books to help you recognise the exciting styuff you see underwater.

Other nearby facilities

Games room

Next to our bar, we have a room stocked with a range of games to keep everyone entertained. Challenge one another to a game of chess or have fun playing Pass The Bomb.

Sunset spot

A five- to ten-minute walk from the bar, our sunset spot is the ideal place for a drink while you watch the sun going down. Simply order at the bar ⁠–⁠ and don’t forget your camera (and a torch for the journey back).

The Boutique

Fancy a bit of retail therapy or looking for the perfect gift or souvenir from your holiday? Our boutique offers a range of crafts, clothes and other mementos so you can take home a little piece of Madagascar.

Sourced from local artisans throughout Madagascar, you’ll find everything from homewares and games to jewellery.

This is just one of the ways we support the local communities.

Choose from a range of clothes, from locally made t-shirts to local-style dresses that you’ll often see worn by the ladies who work at the Lodge.

You can accessorise with bags, and silk and cashmere scarfs.

Madagascar is famous for its production of fragrant ylang-ylang oil used in the perfume industry around the world. Why not take home a reminder of your trip in the form of ylang-ylang oil? The plants are grown on Nosy Sakatia and the plantations can be seen on an island walk.

Tested in the bar and restaurant, bought in the shop, enjoyed at home. Rum arangée is a local drink, made by infusing different ingredients into local rum.

If you’ve enjoyed the complimentary drink served after dinner, you can buy some to take home. We also have Dzama rums that you may have enjoyed at our bar.

Excursions from the Lodge

Although our island is beautiful and offers lots to do, a visit to the North-West of Madagascar also gives you a chance to see more of the nearby islands.

All these trips can be done in a day, so there is no need to pack your suitcase to explore more of this part of Madagascar.

Nosy Iranja and Nosy Antsoha

If you were going to imagine a perfect tropical island, it might look like Nosy Iranja. Turquoise seas, white sand beaches and vibrant market stalls - it is truly beautiful here.

Actually, two islands connected by a sand spit at low tide: you can swim in the clear waters, visit the fishermen’s village or walk to the lighthouse for a breathtaking view.

In season, you can see humpback whales or dolphins on the way there and back.

On some itineraries, you can also stop at Nosy Antsoha to see the resident lemurs up close.

Nosy Tanikely

Famed for its excellent snorkelling, Nosy Tanikely is well worth a visit.

This small and charming volcanic island has a protected marine area with schools of colourful fish and hawksbill turtles.

More wildlife sightings are possible on land; as you walk up to the lighthouse you can often see the resident lemurs and the flying foxes living in the treetops.

Nosy Be

The big island offers a wide range of opportunities, from immersing yourself in the local culture to getting active with horse riding and quad biking.

The main town of Hellville is a melting pot of sights and sounds, and a trip to the market and port lets you experience the smiles and friendliness of the locals. A visit to the ylang-ylang distillery will show you how this local flower is processed for the international perfume industry.

Visit the luscious waterfalls for a quick dip, or take a trip up to the highest point, Mont Passot, for a 360° view of the nearby islands (including your home, here on Nosy Sakatia) and the sacred lakes formed in the dormant craters of the volcano which made this island.

Lokobe Nature Reserve

Situated on Nosy Be, this national park has three different circuits to explore, taking an average of 1.5 hours to 3 hours to complete.

The park is an area of primary forest and is home to 376 species of animals, including 11 species of lemurs. It is a great place to see some of the amazing wildlife of Madagascar.

Nosy Komba

Halfway between Nosy Be and the Madagascar mainland, Nosy Komba has excellent walks, the opportunity to see lemurs and a chance to buy beautiful handmade embroidery from the local village.

You don’t need to travel far to find adventure or relaxation on Nosy Sakatia.

We offer a range of activities right here to let you get the most from your stay.

Whether you are interested in excitement or a touch of pampering, we have an activity for you.

Snorkelling

Our Lodge is located in front of the Ambohibe Turtle Reserve, so you are right next to the action.

As a guest, you get free use of our snorkelling equipment. You can swim out to see the green turtles in their natural habit: a truly special experience. You can also see tropical fish and sea creatures on our house reef, it is just a short swim from our beach.

We are also near to Nosy Tanikely for other snorkelling opportunities; or you can join us on a dive or a try dive to see more of the world underneath the waves.

Walking tours

A walk around the island gives you a real feel for local life and the untouched beauty of Nosy Sakatia.

As an island without roads, exploring on foot is an ideal way to visit the viewpoints and beaches.

Join a local guide to explore, knowing that you're supporting the local community too.

You can take a short walk to explore the village life or a long walk to see the spectacular views.

Pirogue trips

You can also explore the island by boat. Grab some complimentary snorkelling equipment and see the island from the sea – both above and below the water.

You can travel in a traditional wooden pirogue or a larger modern boat but, whichever you choose, it’s a fantastic way to see Nosy Sakatia.

Massages

Holidays should be relaxing and what better way to unwind than a massage?

Our massage center Zebu Zen is tucked away in a quiet corner of the lodge, offering you a serene experience.

Our experienced masseurs are local to the island (some are family of our staff), so you are also helping to support the community.

Snokelling with whale sharks

Between September and November, our private trips for four to twelve people allow you to see the whale sharks that pass through our waters.

Our trips take advantage of the best conditions, leaving just after breakfast for a half-day of close encounters with these majestic creatures, before returning you to the Lodge in time for lunch.

What an amazing way to spend the morning!

Whale watching

Between July and November, a whale watching trip offers you a good possibility of seeing humpback whales up close.

Our friends at Baleines Rand'eau have a comfortable boat and expert guides to help you have the best experience possible.

You can even hear the whale song through the hydrophone they have on the boat.

We can arrange this trip, including transfers to Nosy Be.

Recreational fishing

Join us for a fishing trip and try your hand at catching the game fish that live in our waters.

Our fully equipped boat provides everything you need from rods and tackles to a coolbox for drinks and snacks.

Our skipper is an experienced fisherman himself and knows the best spots to find sailfish, barracudas and other pelagic fish.

Scuba diving in Madagasar

Visit our world-class, unspoiled reefs and the diverse range of fish and creatures that live there. You will find different typography here, from pinnacles and plateaux of coral gardens to muck diving and sponge gardens.

Influenced by the tides, you can experience drift dives and big schools of fish, or quieter dives to spot small, unusual creatures.

We always adapt the dives to the experience and preferences of our divers.

Our dive centre is a NAUI Dream Destination and SSI partner, and we offer the highest level of guiding and training.

Whether you are staying with us or visiting just for diving, we would love to show you the life underwater.

Fun dives

Whether you are newly qualified or an experienced diver, the waters around Nosy Sakatia offer wonderful diving and great opportunities to find unusual creatures living on healthy, diverse reefs.

Try dives

Never tried scuba diving but want to have a go?

Our experienced, patient instructors will ensure you have a fun experience, seeing a fantastic range of sea creatures up close and feeling truly weightless.

Fluo dives

See the reef like never before on a night dive to remember.

Using special lights and filters, you will see the underwater world in a technicolour rainbow and be able to spot creatures normally hidden.

Night dives

The change from day to night allows you to see the reef in a different way.

Spot unusual creatures only seen at night or witness others, like octopus, out hunting.

Our nearby sites are very comfortable, convenient and safe to do a night dive while you are on Nosy Sakatia.

Dive courses

We offer a range of courses for those wanting to qualify as divers or those continuing their dive education.

We offer the highest quality of instruction and don’t just teach you how to pass a course but to be a better diver.

We can certify you as NAUI or SSI diver.

Our team

Our experienced and dedicated team are passionate about marine life and about providing the best dive experience for you.

With over half a century of diving experience between us, we are proud to be noted for our spotting ability and our focus on marine conservation.

We are always happy to share our knowledge with anyone, running sunset talks on a range of topics about the marine world and we have a library of reference books for you to use, so you can identify the beautiful and unusual creatures you see underwater.

NOSY SAKATIA, THE ORCHIDS ISLAND

The island is located on the west coast of Nosy Be and is inside a preserved ecosystem, protected and classified due to the marvels it encloses. Picture post card beaches, rare birds and an endemic flora are at the rendezvous and the local people will proudly give you a tour of their island.

EXPLORING IN THE MORNING

Alongside a local guide, discover the fauna and flora of the most authentic island of Nosy be’s surrounding islands. Go on a hike to all corners of the island to roam in fishing villages, or fields of coffee, vanilla and orchids, which made the island famous, or try to tame a lemur in the forest. All tour long, the guide will tell you about the island’s rites and customs to uncover all of its secrets.

Spend an unforgettable day on the island

After lunch, there is plenty of activities for you to choose : beachvolley, snorkelling, scuba diving or kayak ride for sports people; tanning, massage and nap for those looking to relax. The island has many white sand beaches and some can even be privatized for those looking for peace.

WHERE IS NOSY SAKATIA?

The island is located west of Nosy Be and is reachable by a 10 mn boat ride. To make sure you experience everything, reach the island early in the morning, the local people will always be available to welcome you.

How many islands are there in Madagascar?

Its more than 3,000 miles of coastline and over 250 islands are home to some of the world's largest coral reef systems and most extensive mangrove areas in the Western Indian Ocean.

Inhabited islands

• Ankify
• Barren Isles (Nosy Barren)
• Juan de Nova Island
• Île aux Nattes (Nosy Nato) (separated by 200m from Nosy Boraha (Analanjirofo)
• Île Sainte-Marie (Nosy Boraha), (Analanjirofo
• Nosy Be, the Big Island in Diana
• Nosy Berafia - 10 km long and 3 km wide. Its chief town is Antananabe.
• Nosy Faly
• Nosy Hara National Park
• Nosy Komba (off Nosy Be, Diana)
• Nosy Kisimany (off Nosy Be, Diana)
• Nosy Mamoko (a former Arab trade post off Nosy Be)
• Nosy Mitsio
• Nosy Tanihely National Park
• Nosy Tsarabanjina
• Nosy Ve-Androka National Park (23°38’S, 43°42’E)

Madagascar

Madagascar, officially the Republic of Madagascar, is an island country lying off the southeastern coast of Africa. It is the world's fourth largest island, the second-largest island country and the 44th largest country in the world. Its capital and largest city is Antananarivo.

Madagascar consists of the island of Madagascar and numerous smaller peripheral islands. Following the prehistoric breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana, Madagascar split from Africa during the Early Jurassic, around 180 million years ago, and split from the Indian subcontinent around 90 million years ago, allowing native plants and animals to evolve in relative isolation; consequently, it is a biodiversity hotspot and one of the world's 17 megadiverse countries, with over 90% of wildlife being endemic. The island has a subtropical to tropical maritime climate.

Madagascar was first settled during or before the mid first millennium AD by Austronesian peoples, presumably arriving on outrigger canoes from present-day Indonesia. These were joined around the ninth century AD by Bantu migrants crossing the Mozambique Channel from East Africa. Other groups continued to settle on Madagascar over time, each one making lasting contributions to Malagasy cultural life. Subsequently, the Malagasy ethnic group is often divided into 18 or more subgroups, of which the largest are the Merina of the central highlands.

Until the late 18th century, the island of Madagascar was ruled by a fragmented assortment of shifting sociopolitical alliances. Beginning in the early 19th century, most of it was united and ruled as the Kingdom of Madagascar by a series of Merina nobles. The monarchy was ended in 1897 by the annexation by France, from which Madagascar gained independence in 1960. The country has since undergone four major constitutional periods, termed republics, and has been governed as a constitutional democracy since 1992. Following a political crisis and military coup in 2009, Madagascar underwent a protracted transition towards its fourth and current republic, with constitutional governance being restored in January 2014.

Madagascar is a member of the United Nations (UN), the African Union (AU), the Southern African Development Community (SADC), and the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie. Malagasy and French are both official languages of the state. Christianity is the country's predominant religion, with a significant minority still practicing traditional faiths. Madagascar is classified as a least developed country by the UN. Ecotourism and agriculture, paired with greater investments in education, health and private enterprise, are key elements of its development strategy. Despite substantial economic growth since the early 2000s, income disparities have widened, and quality of life remains low for the majority of the population.

Etymology

In the Malagasy language, the island of Madagascar is called Madagasikara (Malagasy pronunciation: [madaɡasʲˈkʲarə̥]) and its people are referred to as Malagasy.The origin of the name is uncertain, and is likely foreign, having been propagated in the Middle Ages by Europeans. If this is the case, it is unknown when the name was adopted by the inhabitants of the island. No single Malagasy-language name predating Madagasikara appears to have been used by the local population to refer to the island, although some communities had their own name for part or all of the land they inhabited.

One hypothesis relates Madagascar to the word Malay, referring to the Austronesian origin of the Malagasy people in modern-day Indonesia. In a map by Muhammad al-Idrisi dating from the year 1154, the island is named Gesira Malai, or "Malay island" in Arabic. The inversion of this name to Malai Gesira, as it was known by the Greeks, is thought to be the precursor of the modern name of the island. The name "Malay island" was later rendered in Latin as Malichu, an abbreviated form of Malai Insula, in the medieval Hereford Mappa Mundi as the name of Madagascar.

Another hypothesis is that Madagascar is a corrupted transliteration of Mogadishu, the capital of Somalia and an important medieval Indian Ocean port. This would have resulted from 13th-century Venetian explorer Marco Polo confusing the two locations in his memoirs, in which he mentions the land of Madageiscar to the south of Socotra. This name would then have been popularized on Renaissance maps by Europeans. One of the first documents written that might explain why Marco Polo called it Madagascar is in a 1609 book on Madagascar by Jerome Megiser. Jerome Megiser describes an event in which the kings of Mogadishu and Adal traveled to Madagascar with a fleet of around twenty-five thousand men in order to invade the wealthy islands of Taprobane and Sumatra. However, a tempest threw them off course and they landed on the coasts of Madagascar, conquering the island and signing a treaty with its inhabitants. They remained for eight months and erected at different points of the island eight pillars on which they engraved "Magadoxo", a name which later, by corruption became Madagascar. Jan Huyghen van Linschoten, a Dutch traveler who copied Portuguese works and maps, confirmed this event by saying "Madagascar has its name from 'makdishu' (Mogadishu)" whose "shayk" invaded it.

The name Malagasikara, or Malagascar, is also historically attested. A British state paper in 1699 records the arrival of eighty to ninety passengers from "Malagaskar" to what would eventually become New York City. An 1882 edition of the British newspaper The Graphic referred to "Malagascar" as the name of the island, stating that it is etymologically a word of Malay origin, and may be related to the name of Malacca. In 1891, Saleh bin Osman, a Zanzibari traveler, refers to the island as "Malagaskar" when recounting his journeys, including as part of the Emin Pasha Relief Expedition. In 1905, Charles Basset wrote in his doctoral thesis that Malagasikara was the way the island is referred to by its natives, who emphasized that they were Malagasy, and not Madagasy.

History

Early period

Traditionally, archaeologists have estimated that the earliest settlers arrived in successive waves in outrigger canoes from South Borneo, possibly throughout the period between 350 BC and 550 AD, while others are cautious about dates earlier than AD 250. In either case, these dates make Madagascar one of the most recent major landmasses on Earth to be settled by humans, predating the settlement of Iceland and New Zealand. It is proposed that Ma'anyan people were brought as laborers and slaves by Javan and Sumatran-Malays in their trading fleets to Madagascar. Dates earlier than the mid-first millennium AD are not strongly supported.

Upon arrival, early settlers practiced slash-and-burn agriculture to clear the coastal rainforests for cultivation. The first settlers encountered Madagascar's abundance of megafauna, including 17 species of giant lemurs, the large flightless elephant birds (including possibly the largest bird to ever exist, Aepyornis maximus), the giant fossa, and several species of Malagasy hippopotamus, which have since become extinct because of hunting and habitat destruction. By 600 AD, groups of these early settlers had begun clearing the forests of the central highlands.

Arab traders first reached the island between the 7th and 9th centuries. A wave of Bantu-speaking migrants from southeastern Africa arrived around the year 1000. South Indian Tamil merchants arrived around the 11th century. They introduced the zebu, a type of long-horned humped cattle, which they kept in large herds. Irrigated paddy fields were developed in the central highland Betsileo Kingdom and were extended with terraced paddies throughout the neighboring Kingdom of Imerina a century later. The rising intensity of land cultivation and the ever-increasing demand for zebu pasturage had largely transformed the central highlands from a forest ecosystem to grassland by the 17th century.

The oral histories of the Merina people, who arrived in the central highlands between 600 and 1,000 years ago, describe encountering an established population they called the Vazimba. Probably the descendants of an earlier and less technologically advanced Austronesian settlement wave, the Vazimba were assimilated or expelled from the highlands by the Merina kings Andriamanelo, Ralambo, and Andrianjaka in the 16th and early 17th centuries. Today, the spirits of the Vazimba are revered as tompontany (ancestral masters of the land) by many traditional Malagasy communities.

Arab and European contacts

The written history of Madagascar began with the Arabs, who established trading posts along the northwest coast by at least the 10th century and introduced Islam, the Arabic script (used to transcribe the Malagasy language in a form of writing known as sorabe), Arab astrology, and other cultural elements.

European contact began in 1500, when the Portuguese sea captain Diogo Dias sighted the island, while participating in the 2nd Armada of the Portuguese India Armadas.

Matatana was the first Portuguese settlement on the south coast, 10 km west of Fort Dauphin. In 1508, settlers there built a tower, a small village, and a stone column. This settlement was established in 1513 at the behest of the viceroy of Portuguese India, Jeronimo de Azevedo.

Contacts continued from the 1550s. Several colonization and conversion missions were ordered by King João III and by the Viceroy of India, including one in 1553 by Baltazar Lobo de Sousa. In that mission, according to detailed descriptions by chroniclers Diogo do Couto and João de Barros, emissaries reached the inland via rivers and bays, exchanging goods and even converting one of the local kings.

The French established trading posts along the east coast in the late 17th century. From about 1774 to 1824, Madagascar gained prominence among pirates and European traders, particularly those involved in the trans-Atlantic slave trade. The small island of Nosy Boroha off the northeastern coast of Madagascar has been proposed by some historians as the site of the legendary pirate utopia of Libertalia. Many European sailors were shipwrecked on the coasts of the island, among them Robert Drury, whose journal is one of the few written depictions of life in southern Madagascar during the 18th century.

The wealth generated by maritime trade spurred the rise of organized kingdoms on the island, some of which had grown quite powerful by the 17th century. Among these were the Betsimisaraka alliance of the eastern coast and the Sakalava chiefdoms of Menabe and Boina on the west coast. The Kingdom of Imerina, located in the central highlands with its capital at the royal palace of Antananarivo, emerged at around the same time under the leadership of King Andriamanelo.

Kingdom of Madagascar

Upon its emergence in the early 17th century, the highland kingdom of Imerina was initially a minor power relative to the larger coastal kingdoms and grew even weaker in the early 18th century when King Andriamasinavalona divided it among his four sons. Following almost a century of warring and famine, Imerina was reunited in 1793 by King Andrianampoinimerina (1787–1810). From his initial capital Ambohimanga, and later from the Rova of Antananarivo, this Merina king rapidly expanded his rule over neighboring principalities. His ambition to bring the entire island under his control was largely achieved by his son and successor, King Radama I (1810–28), who was recognized by the British government as King of Madagascar. Radama concluded a treaty in 1817 with the British governor of Mauritius to abolish the lucrative slave trade in return for British military and financial assistance. Artisan missionary envoys from the London Missionary Society began arriving in 1818 and included such key figures as James Cameron, David Jones and David Griffiths, who established schools, transcribed the Malagasy language using the Roman alphabet, translated the Bible, and introduced a variety of new technologies to the island.

Radama's successor, Queen Ranavalona I (1828–61), responded to increasing political and cultural encroachment on the part of Britain and France by issuing a royal edict prohibiting the practice of Christianity in Madagascar and pressuring most foreigners to leave the territory. William Ellis of the London Missionary Society described his visits made during her reign in his book Three Visits to Madagascar during the years 1853, 1854, and 1856. The Queen made heavy use of the traditional practice of fanompoana (forced labor as tax payment) to complete public works projects and develop a standing army of between 20,000 and 30,000 Merina soldiers, whom she deployed to pacify outlying regions of the island and further expand the Kingdom of Merina to encompass most of Madagascar. Residents of Madagascar could accuse one another of various crimes, including theft, Christianity and especially witchcraft, for which the ordeal of tangena was routinely obligatory. Between 1828 and 1861, the tangena ordeal caused about 3,000 deaths annually. In 1838, it was estimated that as many as 100,000 people in Imerina died as a result of the tangena ordeal, constituting roughly 20 percent of the population. The combination of regular warfare, disease, difficult forced labor, and harsh measures of justice resulted in a high mortality rate among soldiers and civilians alike during her 33-year reign; the population of Madagascar is estimated to have declined from around 5 million to 2.5 million between 1833 and 1839.

Among those who continued to reside in Imerina were Jean Laborde, an entrepreneur who developed munitions and other industries on behalf of the monarchy, and Joseph-François Lambert, a French adventurer and slave trader, with whom then-Prince Radama II signed a controversial trade agreement termed the Lambert Charter. Succeeding his mother, Radama II attempted to relax the queen's stringent policies, but was overthrown two years later by Prime Minister Rainivoninahitriniony and an alliance of Andriana (noble) and Hova (commoner) courtiers, who sought to end the absolute power of the monarch.

Following the coup, the courtiers offered Radama's queen, Rasoherina, the opportunity to rule, if she would accept a power sharing arrangement with the Prime Minister: a new social contract that would be sealed by a political marriage between them. Queen Rasoherina accepted, first marrying Rainivoninahitriniony, then later deposing him and marrying his brother, Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony, who would go on to marry Queen Ranavalona II and Queen Ranavalona III in succession. Over the course of Rainilaiarivony's 31-year tenure as prime minister, numerous policies were adopted to modernize and consolidate the power of the central government. Schools were constructed throughout the island and attendance was made mandatory. Army organization was improved and British consultants were employed to train and professionalize soldiers. Polygamy was outlawed and Christianity, declared the official religion of the court in 1869, was adopted alongside traditional beliefs among a growing portion of the populace. Legal codes were reformed on the basis of British common law and three European-style courts were established in the capital city. In his joint role as Commander-in-Chief, Rainilaiarivony also successfully ensured the defense of Madagascar against several French colonial incursions.

French colonization

Primarily on the basis that the Lambert Charter had not been respected, France invaded Madagascar in 1883 in what became known as the first Franco-Hova War. At the end of the war, Madagascar ceded the northern port town of Antsiranana (Diego Suarez) to France and paid 560,000 francs to Lambert's heirs. In 1890, the British accepted the full formal imposition of a French protectorate on the island, but French authority was not acknowledged by the government of Madagascar. To force capitulation, the French bombarded and occupied the harbor of Toamasina on the east coast, and Mahajanga on the west coast, in December 1894 and January 1895 respectively.

A French military flying column then marched toward Antananarivo, losing many men to malaria and other diseases. Reinforcements came from Algeria and Sub-Saharan Africa. Upon reaching the city in September 1895, the column bombarded the royal palace with heavy artillery, causing heavy casualties and leading Queen Ranavalona III to surrender. France annexed Madagascar in 1896 and declared the island a colony the following year, dissolving the Merina monarchy and sending the royal family into exile on Réunion Island and to Algeria. A two-year resistance movement organized in response to the French capture of the royal palace was effectively put down at the end of 1897.

The conquest was followed by ten years of civil war, due to the Menalamba insurrection. The "pacification" carried out by the French administration lasted more than fifteen years, in response to the rural guerrillas scattered throughout the country. In total, the repression of this resistance to colonial conquest caused several tens of thousands of Malagasy victims.

Under colonial rule, plantations were established for the production of a variety of export crops. Slavery was abolished in 1896 and approximately 500,000 slaves were freed; many remained in their former masters' homes as servants or as sharecroppers; in many parts of the island strong discriminatory views against slave descendants are still held today. Wide paved boulevards and gathering places were constructed in the capital city of Antananarivo and the Rova palace compound was turned into a museum. Additional schools were built, particularly in rural and coastal areas where the schools of the Merina had not reached. Education became mandatory between the ages of 6 and 13 and focused primarily on French language and practical skills.

Huge mining and forestry concessions were granted to large companies. Native chiefs loyal to the French administration were also granted part of the land. Forced labor was introduced in favor of the French companies and peasants were encouraged, through taxation, to work for wages (especially in the colonial concessions) to the detriment of small individual farms. However, the colonial period was accompanied by movements fighting for independence: the Menalamba, the Vy Vato Sakelika, the Democratic Movement for Malagasy Renovation (MDRM). In 1927, major demonstrations were organized in Antananarivo, notably on the initiative of the communist activist François Vittori, who was imprisoned as a result. The 1930s saw the Malagasy anti-colonial movement gain further momentum. Malagasy trade unionism began to appear underground and the Communist Party of the Madagascar region was formed. But in 1939, all the organizations were dissolved by the administration of the colony, which opted for the Vichy regime. The MDRM was accused by the colonial regime of being at the origin of the 1947 insurrection and was pursued by violent repression.

The Merina royal tradition of taxes paid in the form of labor was continued under the French and used to construct a railway and roads linking key coastal cities to Antananarivo. Malagasy troops fought for France in World War I. In the 1930s, Nazi political thinkers developed the Madagascar Plan that had identified the island as a potential site for the deportation of Europe's Jews. During the Second World War, the island was the site of the Battle of Madagascar between the Vichy French and an Allied expeditionary force.

The occupation of France during the Second World War tarnished the prestige of the colonial administration in Madagascar and galvanized the growing independence movement, leading to the Malagasy Uprising of 1947. This movement led the French to establish reformed institutions in 1956 under the Loi Cadre (Overseas Reform Act), and Madagascar moved peacefully towards independence. The Malagasy Republic was proclaimed on 14 October 1958, as an autonomous state within the French Community. A period of provisional government ended with the adoption of a constitution in 1959 and full independence on 26 June 1960.

Independent state

Since regaining independence, Madagascar has transitioned through four republics with corresponding revisions to its constitution. The First Republic (1960–72), under the leadership of French-appointed President Philibert Tsiranana, was characterized by a continuation of strong economic and political ties to France. Many high-level technical positions were filled by French expatriates, and French teachers, textbooks and curricula continued to be used in schools around the country. Popular resentment over Tsiranana's tolerance for this "neo-colonial" arrangement inspired a series of farmer and student protests that overturned his administration in 1972.

Gabriel Ramanantsoa, a major general in the army, was appointed interim president and prime minister that same year, but low public approval forced him to step down in 1975. Colonel Richard Ratsimandrava, appointed to succeed him, was assassinated six days into his tenure. General Gilles Andriamahazo ruled after Ratsimandrava for four months before being replaced by another military appointee: Vice Admiral Didier Ratsiraka, who ushered in the Marxist–Leninist Second Republic that ran under his tenure from 1975 to 1993.

This period saw a political alignment with the Eastern Bloc countries and a shift toward economic insularity. These policies, coupled with economic pressures stemming from the 1973 oil crisis, resulted in the rapid collapse of Madagascar's economy and a sharp decline in living standards, and the country had become completely bankrupt by 1979. The Ratsiraka administration accepted the conditions of transparency, anti-corruption measures and free market policies imposed by the International Monetary Fund, World Bank and various bilateral donors in exchange for their bailout of the nation's broken economy.

Ratsiraka's dwindling popularity in the late 1980s reached a critical point in 1991 when presidential guards opened fire on unarmed protesters during a rally. Within two months, a transitional government had been established under the leadership of Albert Zafy (1993–96), who went on to win the 1992 presidential elections and inaugurate the Third Republic (1992–2010). The new Madagascar constitution established a multi-party democracy and a separation of powers that placed significant control in the hands of the National Assembly. The new constitution also emphasized human rights, social and political freedoms, and free trade. Zafy's term, however, was marred by economic decline, allegations of corruption, and his introduction of legislation to give himself greater powers. He was consequently impeached in 1996, and an interim president, Norbert Ratsirahonana, was appointed for the three months prior to the next presidential election. Ratsiraka was then voted back into power on a platform of decentralization and economic reforms for a second term which lasted from 1996 to 2001.

The contested 2001 presidential elections in which then-mayor of Antananarivo, Marc Ravalomanana, eventually emerged victorious, caused a seven-month standoff in 2002 between supporters of Ravalomanana and Ratsiraka. The negative economic impact of the political crisis was gradually overcome by Ravalomanana's progressive economic and political policies, which encouraged investments in education and ecotourism, facilitated foreign direct investment, and cultivated trading partnerships both regionally and internationally. National GDP grew at an average rate of 7 percent per year under his administration. In the latter half of his second term, Ravalomanana was criticised by domestic and international observers who accused him of increasing authoritarianism and corruption.

Opposition leader and then-mayor of Antananarivo, Andry Rajoelina, led a movement in early 2009 in which Ravalomanana was pushed from power in an unconstitutional process widely condemned as a coup d'état. In March 2009, Rajoelina was declared by the Supreme Court as the President of the High Transitional Authority, an interim governing body responsible for moving the country toward presidential elections. In 2010, a new constitution was adopted by referendum, establishing a Fourth Republic, which sustained the democratic, multi-party structure established in the previous constitution. Hery Rajaonarimampianina was declared the winner of the 2013 presidential election, which the international community deemed fair and transparent.

In 2018 the first round of the presidential election was held on 7 November and the second round was held on 10 December. Three former presidents and the most recent president were the main candidates of the elections. Former president Andry Rajoelina won the second round of the elections. He was previously president from 2009 to 2014. Former president Marc Ravalomana lost the second round and he did not accept the results because of allegations of fraud. Ravalomana was president from 2002 to 2009. The most recent president Hery Rajaonarimampianina received very modest support in the first round. In January 2019 the High Constitutional Court declared Rajoelina as the winner of the elections and the new president.

In June 2019 parliamentary elections the party of president Andry Rajoelina won absolute majority of the seats of the National Assembly. It received 84 seats and the supporters of former president Ravalomana got only 16 seats of 151 seats of the National Assembly. 51 seats of deputies were independent or represented small parties. President Rajoelina could rule as a strongman.

Mid-2021 marked the beginning of the 2021–2022 Madagascar famine which, due to a severe drought, caused hundreds of thousands of people to face food insecurity and over one million people were on the verge of a famine.

In November 2023, Andry Rajoelina was re-elected to another term with 58.95% of the vote in the first round of the election amidst an opposition boycott and a controversy about his acquisition of French citizenship and subsequent eligibility. Turnout was 46.36%, the lowest in a presidential election in the country's history.

Geography

At 592,800 square kilometres (228,900 sq mi), Madagascar is the world's 46th largest country, the second-largest island country and the fourth-largest island. The country lies mostly between latitudes 12°S and 26°S, and longitudes 43°E and 51°E. Neighboring islands include the French territory of Réunion and the country of Mauritius to the east, as well as the state of Comoros and the French territory of Mayotte to the north west. The nearest mainland state is Mozambique, located to the west.

The prehistoric breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana resulted in the separation of East Gondwana (comprising Madagascar, Antarctica, Australia and the Indian subcontinent) and West Gondwana (Africa–South America) during the Jurassic period, around 185 million years ago. The Indo-Madagascar landmass separated from Antarctica and Australia around 125 million years ago and Madagascar separated from the Indian landmass about 84–92 million years ago during the Late Cretaceous. This long history of separation from other continents has allowed plants and animals on the island to evolve in relative isolation. Along the length of the eastern coast runs a narrow and steep escarpment containing much of the island's remaining tropical lowland forest. To the west of this ridge lies a plateau in the center of the island ranging in altitude from 750 to 1,500 m (2,460 to 4,920 ft) above sea level. These central highlands, traditionally the homeland of the Merina people and the location of their historic capital at Antananarivo, are the most densely populated part of the island and are characterized by terraced, rice-growing valleys lying between grassy hills and patches of the subhumid forests that formerly covered the highland region. To the west of the highlands, the increasingly arid terrain gradually slopes down to the Mozambique Channel and mangrove swamps along the coast.

Madagascar's highest peaks rise from three prominent highland massifs: Maromokotro 2,876 m (9,436 ft) in the Tsaratanana Massif is the island's highest point, followed by Boby Peak 2,658 m (8,720 ft) in the Andringitra Massif, and Tsiafajavona 2,643 m (8,671 ft) in the Ankaratra Massif. To the east, the Canal des Pangalanes is a chain of human-made and natural lakes connected by canals built by the French just inland from the east coast and running parallel to it for some 600 km (370 mi).

The western and southern sides, which lie in the rain shadow of the central highlands, are home to dry deciduous forests, spiny forests, and deserts and xeric shrublands. Due to their lower population densities, Madagascar's dry deciduous forests have been better preserved than the eastern rain forests or the original woodlands of the central plateau. The western coast features many protected harbors, but silting is a major problem caused by sediment from the high levels of inland erosion carried by rivers crossing the broad western plains.

Climate

The combination of southeastern trade winds and northwestern monsoons produces a hot rainy season (November–April) with frequently destructive cyclones, and a relatively cooler dry season (May–October). Rain clouds originating over the Indian Ocean discharge much of their moisture over the island's eastern coast; the heavy precipitation supports the area's rainforest ecosystem. The central highlands are both drier and cooler while the west is drier still, and a semi-arid climate prevails in the southwest and southern interior of the island.

Tropical cyclones cause damage to infrastructure and local economies as well as loss of life. In 2004, Cyclone Gafilo became the strongest cyclone ever recorded to hit Madagascar. The storm killed 172 people, left 214,260 homeless and caused more than US$250 million in damage. In February 2022, Cyclone Batsirai killed at least 10 people weeks after Cyclone Ana killed 55 and displaced 130,000 people on the island.

A 2022 analysis found that the expected costs for Madagascar, to adapt to and avert the environmental consequences of climate change, are going to be high.

Biodiversity and conservation

As a result of the island's long isolation from neighboring continents, Madagascar is home to various endemic plants and animals found nowhere else on Earth. Approximately 90% of all plant and animal species found in Madagascar are endemic. This distinctive ecology has led some ecologists to refer to Madagascar as the "eighth continent", and the island has been classified by Conservation International as a biodiversity hotspot. Madagascar is classed as one of 17 megadiverse countries. The country is home to seven terrestrial ecoregions: Madagascar lowland forests, Madagascar subhumid forests, Madagascar dry deciduous forests, Madagascar ericoid thickets, Madagascar spiny forests, Madagascar succulent woodlands, and Madagascar mangroves.

More than 80 percent of Madagascar's 14,883 plant species are found nowhere else in the world, including five plant families. The family Didiereaceae, composed of four genera and 11 species, is limited to the spiny forests of southwestern Madagascar. Four-fifths of the world's Pachypodium species are endemic to the island. Three-fourths of Madagascar's 860 orchid species are found here alone, as are six of the world's nine baobab species. The island is home to around 170 palm species, three times as many as on all of mainland Africa; 165 of them are endemic. Many native plant species are used as herbal remedies for a variety of afflictions. The drugs vinblastine and vincristine are vinca alkaloids, used to treat Hodgkin lymphoma, leukemia, and other cancers, were derived from the Madagascar periwinkle.The traveler's palm, known locally as ravinala and endemic to the eastern rain forests,is highly iconic of Madagascar and is featured in the national emblem as well as the Air Madagascar logo.

Like its flora, Madagascar's fauna is diverse and exhibits a high rate of endemism. Lemurs have been characterized as "Madagascar's flagship mammal species" by Conservation International. In the absence of monkeys and other competitors, these primates have adapted to a wide range of habitats and diversified into numerous species. As of 2012, there were officially 103 species and subspecies of lemur, 39 of which were described by zoologists between 2000 and 2008. They are almost all classified as rare, vulnerable, or endangered. At least 17 species of lemur have become extinct since humans arrived on Madagascar, all of which were larger than the surviving lemur species.

A number of other mammals, including the catlike fossa, are endemic to Madagascar. Over 300 species of birds have been recorded on the island, of which over 60 percent (including four families and 42 genera) are endemic. The few families and genera of reptiles that have reached Madagascar have diversified into more than 260 species, with over 90 percent of these being endemic (including one endemic family). The island is home to two-thirds of the world's chameleon species, including the smallest known.

Endemic fish of Madagascar include two families, 15 genera and over 100 species, primarily inhabiting the island's freshwater lakes and rivers. Although invertebrates remain poorly studied in Madagascar, researchers have found high rates of endemism among the known species. All 651 species of terrestrial snail are endemic, as are a majority of the island's butterflies, scarab beetles, lacewings, spiders, and dragonflies.

Madagascar's varied fauna and flora are endangered by human activity. Since the arrival of humans around 2,350 years ago, Madagascar has lost more than 90 percent of its original forest. This forest loss is largely fueled by tavy ("fat"), a traditional slash-and-burn agricultural practice imported to Madagascar by the earliest settlers. Malagasy farmers embrace and perpetuate the practice not only for its practical benefits as an agricultural technique, but for its cultural associations with prosperity, health and venerated ancestral custom (fomba malagasy). As human population density rose on the island, deforestation accelerated beginning around 1,400 years ago. By the 16th century, the central highlands had been largely cleared of their original forests. More recent contributors to the loss of forest cover include the growth in cattle herd size since their introduction around 1,000 years ago, a continued reliance on charcoal as a fuel for cooking, and the increased prominence of coffee as a cash crop over the past century. Madagascar had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.63/10, ranking it 119th globally out of 172 countries.

According to a conservative estimate, about 40 percent of the island's original forest cover was lost from the 1950s to 2000, with a thinning of remaining forest areas by 80 percent. In addition to traditional agricultural practice, wildlife conservation is challenged by the illicit harvesting of protected forests, as well as the state-sanctioned harvesting of precious woods within national parks. Although banned by then-President Marc Ravalomanana from 2000 to 2009, the collection of small quantities of precious timber from national parks was re-authorized in January 2009 and dramatically intensified under the administration of Andry Rajoelina as a key source of state revenues to offset cuts in donor support following Ravalomanana's ousting.

Invasive species have likewise been introduced by human populations. Following the 2014 discovery in Madagascar of the Asian common toad, a relative of a toad species that has severely harmed wildlife in Australia since the 1930s, researchers warned the toad could "wreak havoc on the country's unique fauna." Habitat destruction and hunting have threatened many of Madagascar's endemic species or driven them to extinction. The island's elephant birds, a family of endemic giant ratites, became extinct in the 17th century or earlier, most probably because of human hunting of adult birds and poaching of their large eggs for food. Numerous giant lemur species vanished with the arrival of human settlers to the island, while others became extinct over the course of the centuries as a growing human population put greater pressures on lemur habitats and, among some populations, increased the rate of lemur hunting for food. A July 2012 assessment found that the exploitation of natural resources since 2009 has had dire consequences for the island's wildlife: 90 percent of lemur species were found to be threatened with extinction, the highest proportion of any mammalian group. Of these, 23 species were classified as critically endangered. A 2023 study published in Nature Communications found that 120 of the 219 mammal species only found on Madagascar are threatened with extinction.

In 2003, Ravalomanana announced the Durban Vision, an initiative to more than triple the island's protected natural areas to over 60,000 km² (23,000 sq mi) or 10 percent of Madagascar's land surface. As of 2011, areas protected by the state included five Strict Nature Reserves (Réserves Naturelles Intégrales), 21 Wildlife Reserves (Réserves Spéciales) and 21 National Parks (Parcs Nationaux). In 2007 six of the national parks were declared a joint World Heritage Site under the name Rainforests of the Atsinanana. These parks are Marojejy, Masoala, Ranomafana, Zahamena, Andohahela and Andringitra. Local timber merchants are harvesting scarce species of rosewood trees from protected rainforests within Marojejy National Park and exporting the wood to China for the production of luxury furniture and musical instruments.

Economy

Madagascar's GDP in 2015 was estimated at US$9.98 billion, with a per capita GDP of $411.82. Approximately 69 percent of the population lives below the national poverty line threshold of one dollar per day. During 2011–15, the average growth rate was 2.6% but was expected to have reached 4.1% in 2016, due to public works programs and a growth of the service sector. The agriculture sector constituted 29 percent of Malagasy GDP in 2011, while manufacturing formed 15 percent of GDP. Madagascar's other sources of growth are tourism, agriculture and the extractive industries. The fishing sector represents 800 millions USD or 6% of GNP with 200 000 direct jobs.

Tourism focuses on the niche eco-tourism market, capitalizing on Madagascar's unique biodiversity, unspoiled natural habitats, national parks and lemur species. An estimated 365,000 tourists visited Madagascar in 2008, but the sector declined during the political crisis with 180,000 tourists visiting in 2010. However, the sector has been growing steadily for a few years. In 2016, 293,000 tourists landed in the African island with an increase of 20% compared to 2015. For 2017 the country has the goal of reaching 366,000 visitors, while for 2018 government estimates are expected to reach 500,000 annual tourists.

The island is still a very poor country in 2018; structural brakes remain in the development of the economy: corruption and the shackles of the public administration, lack of legal certainty, and backwardness of land legislation. The economy, however, has been growing since 2011, with GDP growth exceeding 4% per year; almost all economic indicators are growing, the GDP per capita was around $1600 (PPP) for 2017, one of the lowest in the world, although growing since 2012; unemployment was also cut, which in 2016 was equal to 2.1% with a work force of 13.4 million as of 2017. The main economic resources of Madagascar are tourism, textiles, agriculture, and mining.

Poverty affects 92% of the population in 2017. The country ranks fourth in the world in terms of chronic malnutrition. Nearly one in two children under the age of five is stunted. In addition, Madagascar is among the five countries where access to water is the most difficult for the population. Twelve million people do not have access to clean water, according to the NGO WaterAid.